Human Development Index Free Essays

Presentation: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measurement used to rank nations by level of â€Å"human development† and separate â€Å"very high human development†, â€Å"high human development†, â€Å"medium human development†, and â€Å"low human development† nations. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a similar proportion of future, proficiency, instruction and ways of life for nations around the world. It is a standard methods for estimating prosperity, particularly kid government assistance. We will compose a custom exposition test on Human Development Index or then again any comparable theme just for you Request Now It is utilized to recognize whether the nation is a created, a creating or an immature nation, and furthermore to quantify the effect of financial strategies on personal satisfaction. There are likewise HDI for states, urban communities, towns, and so on by neighborhood associations or organizations. Foundation: The birthplaces of the HDI are found in the yearly Human Development Reports of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). These were contrived and propelled by Pakistani financial specialist Mahbub ul Haq in 1990 and had the express reason ‘‘to move the focal point of advancement financial aspects from national pay bookkeeping to individuals focused policies’’. To create the Human Development Reports, Mahbub ul Haq united a gathering of notable advancement financial experts including: Paul Streeten, Frances Stewart, Gustav Ranis, Keith Griffin, Sudhir Anand and Meghnad Desai. Yet, it was Nobel laureate Amartya Sen’s chip away at capacities and functionings that gave the fundamental calculated structure. Haq was certain that a straightforward composite proportion of human improvement was required so as to persuade general society, scholastics, and strategy creators that they can and ought to assess advancement by financial advances as well as upgrades in human prosperity. Sen at first restricted this thought, yet he proceeded to help Haq build up the Human Development Index (HDI). Sen was concerned that it was hard to catch the full intricacy of human capacities in a solitary file yet Haq convinced him that lone a solitary number would move the consideration of strategy producers from focus on financial to human prosperity. Information assortment: Life hope during childbirth is given by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs; mean long stretches of tutoring by Barro and Lee (2010); expected long periods of tutoring by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics; and GNI per capita by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. For barely any nations, mean long stretches of tutoring are evaluated from broadly delegate family unit studies. Numerous information holes despite everything exist in even some extremely essential territories of human advancement markers. While effectively pushing for the improvement of human advancement information, as a rule and for useful reasons, the Human Development Report Office doesn't gather information straightforwardly from nations or make evaluations to fill these information holes in the Report. Measurements and computation: Published on 4 November 2010, beginning with the 2010 Human Development Report the HDI consolidates three measurements: 1. A long and solid life: Life hope during childbirth 2. Access to information: Mean long periods of tutoring and Expected long periods of tutoring 3. A good way of life: GNI per capita (PPP US$) The HDI consolidated three measurements up until its 2010 report: 1. Future during childbirth, as a file of populace wellbeing and life span 2. Information and instruction, as estimated by the grown-up education rate (with 66% weighting) and the consolidated essential, auxiliary, and tertiary gross enlistment proportion (with 33% weighting). 3. Way of life, as showed by the common logarithm of GDP per capita at buying power equality. New procedure for 2010 information onwards: In its 2010 Human Development Report the UNDP started utilizing another technique for ascertaining the HDI. The accompanying three records are utilized: LE ¬-20 1. Future Index (LEI) = 63. 2 vMYSI . EYSI 2. Training Index (EI) = 0. 951 ln (GNIpc) †ln (163) 3. Salary Index (II) = ln(108,211) †ln (163) Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the past three standardized lists: HDI = v LEI . EI . II 2010 report: The 2010 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Program was discharged on November 4, 2010, and computes HDI values dependent on gauges for 2010. Reactions: The Human Development Index has been scrutinized on various grounds, including inability to incorporate any natural contemplations, concentrating solely on national execution and positioning (albeit numerous national Human Development Reports, taking a gander at subnational execution, have been distributed by UNDP and othersâ€so this last case is false), not giving a lot of consideration to improvement from a worldwide point of view and dependent on grounds of estimation blunder of the basic measurements and recipe changes by the UNDP which can prompt serious misclassifications of nations in the classes of being a ‘low’, ‘medium’, ‘high’ or ‘very high’ human evelopment nation. Different creators guaranteed that the Human Development Reports â€Å"have put some distance between their unique vision and the file neglects to catch the substance of the world it tries to portray†. The record has additionally been reprimanded as â€Å"redundant† and a â€Å"reinvention of the wheel†, estimating parts of improvement that have just been comprehensively contemplated. The file has additionally been condemned for having an unseemly treatment of salary, lacking year-to-year likeness, and surveying improvement contrastingly in various gatherings of nations. Financial specialist Bryan Caplan has scrutinized the way HDI scores are delivered; every one of the three segments are limited somewhere in the range of zero and one. Because of that, rich nations adequately can't improve their rating (and in this way their positioning comparative with different nations) in specific classifications, despite the fact that there is a ton of extension for monetary development and life span left. â€Å"This viably implies that a nation of immortals with endless per-capita GDP would get a score of . 66 (lower than South Africa and Tajikistan) if its populace were uneducated and never went to class. † He contends, â€Å"Scandinavia ends up as the winner as indicated by the HDI in light of the fact that the HDI is fundamentally a proportion of how Scandinavian your nation is. † Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer talk about the HDI from the point of view of information mistake in the fundamental wellbeing, instruc tion and pay measurements used to build the HDI. 18] They distinguish three wellsprings of information mistake which are because of (I) information refreshing, (ii) equation modifications and (iii) limits to arrange a country’s advancement status and locate that 11%, 21% and 34% of all nations can be deciphered as of now misclassified in the improvement canisters because of the three wellsprings of information blunder, separately. The creators recommend that the United Nations should suspend the act of ordering nations into improvement receptacles on the grounds that the cut-off qualities appear to be discretionary, can give motivating forces to vital conduct in announcing official insights, and can possibly misinform legislators, speculators, noble cause donators and the general population everywhere which utilize the HDI. In 2010 the UNDP responded to the analysis and refreshed the edges to arrange countries as low, medium and high human advancement nations. In a remark to The Economist toward the beginning of January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded[24] to a January 6, 2011 article in The Economist which examines the Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office expresses that they embraced an efficient modification of the techniques utilized for the count of the HDI and that the new strategy straightforwardly addresses the investigate by Wolff et al. in that it creates a framework for nonstop refreshing of the human improvement classes at whatever point equation or information updates occur. Coming up next are normal reactions aimed at the HDI: that it is an excess measure that adds little to the estimation of the individual estimates creating it; that it is a way to give authenticity to subjective weightings of a couple of parts of social turn of events; that it is a number delivering a relative positioning which is pointless for between worldly correlations, and hard to think about a country’s progress or relapse since the HDI for a nation in a given year relies upon the degrees of, state, future or GDP per capita of different nations in that year. Be that as it may, every year, UN part states are recorded and positioned by the figured HDI. Assuming high, the position in the rundown can be effortlessly utilized as a methods for national magnification; then again, assuming low, it very well may be utilized to feature national deficiencies. Utilizing the HDI as a flat out record of social government assistance, a few creators have utilized board HDI information to quantify the effect of financial approaches on personal satisfaction. Ratan Lal Basu scrutinizes the HDI idea from a totally extraordinary edge. As per him the Amartya Sen-Mahbub ul Haq idea of HDI thinks about that arrangement of material pleasantries alone would achieve Human Development, however Basu opines that Human Development in the genuine sense should grasp both material and good turn of events. As indicated by him human advancement dependent on HDI alone, is like dairy ranch financial matters to improve dairy ranch yield. To cite: ‘So human advancement exertion ought not wind up in improvement of material hardships alone: it must attempt to achieve otherworldly and moral advancement to help the biped to turn out to be genuinely human. [31] For instance, a high self destruction rate would cut the file down. A couple of creators have proposed elective lists to address a portion of the index’s deficiencies. Be that as it may, of those proposed options in contrast to the HDI, few have produc

Relations Between Women In The 18th And 19th Centuries. Essay -- essay

Relations between ladies in the eighteenth and nineteenth hundreds of years. Subject: Relations between ladies in the eighteenth and nineteenth hundreds of years. Postulation: Relationships between ladies in the nineteenth century America made a web of affection and backing for ladies. Moms and little girls, sisters and companions from youth shaped enthusiastic and now and again physical bonds that kept going lifetimes. These ties were recognized and handily acknowledged in their social orders. Numerous ladies endure unimaginable hardships, for example, topographical disconnection, youngster birth, and loss of kids due to the unqualified love found in their relations with other ladies. I.      Introduction A. Female kinship of nineteenth century not so much concentrated previously B. Bounty of proof recommends exceptionally forceful passionate ties between ladies.      C. A wide range of connections are recommended from genuine love to energy      D. In this world men are not really noted II.      Defining and breaking down these relations      A. Question of strategy and understanding      B. The most effective method to see same sex relations           1.Psychopathology  â â â â â â â â â 2.dichotomy among typical and anomalous      C. Survey inside a social and social setting      D. In light of the journals of ladies from 35 families from 1760s to 1880s           1.Represents brood scope of ladies           2.Middle class III.      Sensual and non-romantic      A. Sarah Butler Wister and Jeannie Field Musgrove  â â â â â â â â â 1. Met while families traveled; went through 2 years  â â â â â â â â â together at all inclusive school  â â â â â â â â â 2. all through life kept in touch with one another discussing  â â â â â â â â â their profound friendship and their anguish when separated  â â â â â â â â â 3. Marriage brought physical partition however nor  â â â &nbsp... ... companions and family members were available through the whole procedure. VII. End  â â â â The connections between ladies during this time was center to their lives what's more, endurance. Without the adoration, backing, and ceremonies encompassing their day by day lives respectively, huge numbers of the ladies would not have endure the hardships that regularly introduced themselves throughout everyday life. Purpose of Analysis: I feel that the creator was somewhat wordy in her clarifications of certain things. There are numerous things that she rehashes. I moreover feel that she could have introduced progressively about the lives of men. In the wake of perusing this, I wonder what the men did the entire day and in the event that they had connections like this with their companions and male family. It is an extraordinary article and shows clearly the lives of ladies during this time Purpose of Synthesis: This article truly helped me to comprehend the ladies during this time significantly more. To see their lives on a substantially more close to home level, what's more, how they mingled truly makes a more profound and increasingly close to home comprehension of ladies here. Interfacing this with their political lives, territorial, and strict assists with making the circle finish and make a genuine comprehension of ladies during this period.

Self-strengthening movernment in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Self-reinforcing movernment in China - Essay Example Current researchers of Chinese national security questions would do well to focus on a hundred-year time frame that denoted a really crucial second inside that 4000-year length. The defining moment in the Chinese history came in the nineteenth century, requiring as it does cautious consideration regarding the administration’s dealings with the extraordinary forces of Europe, the United States, and Japan. The Qing Dynasty which was in charge pretty much of the Empire since 1644, ended up at mid-century unfit to overlook managing the outside savages, and this necessary broad survey of its monetary, political and military approaches and systems. The ability to make change to these territories and modernize Chinese military specifically can be recognized as the Self-Strengthening Movement1. The Self-Strengthening Movement, as the name demonstrates, upheld by a gathering of Qing authorities who needed to reinforce the feeble initiative by taking in innovation from the western natio ns. The Self-Strengthening Movement was likewise a time of institutional changes presented during the late Qing Dynasty following various military annihilations and concessions to western forces. Lamentably, this development can be considered as a disappointment since China didn't have the option to shield itself during the Sino-French and Sino-Japanese wars. The disappointment of the Self â€Strengthening Movement can be associated with various reasons one being the set number of gifted labor, which prompted the breakdown of oneself reinforcing development. Transmission of innovation was little in 1881 when the undertaking of sending young men to western nations like United States of America to examine halted. China didn't understand that one of the genuine reasons was its degenerate framework and government. There was wide spread defilement in the legislature of China which can be viewed as a factor to the breakdown of self-fortifying development in China. A model is the Dowager Empress which spent more than 30 million Taels of assets implied for the maritime to developing the Summer Palace for her own â€Å"amusement during retirement† as Hsu expressed. The 30 million Taels intended to reserve and bolster the naval force of china. Hsu additionally noticed that Li Hongzhang can be â€Å"not noted for high ethics and character†. Evidently, Li deserted a home evaluated to be worth more than 40 million Taels that the individuals near him â€Å"milked and crushed the manufacturing plants and undertakings under their charge mercilessly.† Many more occasions prompted the breakdown of oneself fortifying development in china one of them being the western dealers pulling back their capital in China and stopping to exchange. The waterfront dealers all got bankrupt and their unique quality turned out to be very depleted. The masses thusly, moved away and became transients. In sometime in the not so distant future, they might be terrified a few ti mes without having the option to ensure their own lives. The Chinese dealers even endured more. In oneself fortifying development which included more wars, the Chinese vendors, only raised a ruckus to themselves2. The Self-fortifying development had a constrained extent of exercises to complete. As per Hsu, oneself reinforcing development just went similarly as improving â€Å"machines, ships, guns, mining, light industry and interchanges. No endeavors existed to coordinate Western associations, culture, expressions, and philosophy.†

The Cause of Chinas Inflation

Presentation In May 2011, China’s swelling arrived at 5.5% imprint; this is in spite of the considerable number of intercessions and endeavors by the legislature to control the ascent in cost of items. China’s National Bureau of insights understood that the swelling was over 5.3% in April, and this prompted the declaration to build the save prerequisite proportion by China’s Central Bank (Fewsmith 48).Advertising We will compose a custom article test on The Cause of China’s Inflation explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The expansion was affected from June 2011, with a store of 0.5% for every single budgetary foundation. The expansion has had impacts on the economy of China subsequently influencing the lives of the Chinese individuals. This paper will talk about the impacts and reasons for expansion in China. Impacts of swelling in China The impact of expansion is felt in different manners by the economy; first, the flexibly of foods grow n from the ground diminished. The gracefully is influenced by the expansion of costs of food in the worldwide market, whereby, the Chinese government thinks that its hard to fulfill the food request of the expanding populace of the Chinese populace. The expansion in costs of food has caused a decrease in buying intensity of Chinese individuals, with this; life has gotten progressively hard for Chinese individuals since they can't manage without the things (Klein and Shabbir, 102). The Chinese individuals are presently battling to live in light of the fact that the cash they gain is not, at this point enough to fulfill their necessities. The costs of different items have additionally expanded; along these lines, the modest items delivered by the Chinese individuals to the world markets are not, at this point modest on account of the swelling. The expenses of crude materials together with work wage increments has prompted an expansion in the expenses of creation; it is a direct result of the significant expense of creation that the cost of completed products have expanded prompting a decrease sought after of merchandise from China. The segment that is most influenced is that delivering clothing, toys and furniture. Reasons for swelling in China The expansion is brought about by hardly any key components, and one of them is the exacting control of money by the Chinese government. The Chinese government contends that the exacting control of money will guarantee that the nation consistently has enough assets to pay for clearing its obligations; in any case, this control indirectly affects the country’s economy. The exacting control makes the importation of food just as vitality assets to be progressively costly (Fewsmith 63). When the vitality assets are costly they increment the expense of creation since it is one of the elements of creation; this, thusly, builds the cost of completed the process of products.Advertising Looking for paper on business financi al aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The expansion in cost of Chinese merchandise in the universal market has decreased the interest for the products, which prompts a decrease in the fares. The decrease in sends out combined with the Chinese developing populace at that point keeps on expanding for purchaser merchandise in China and on the grounds that the products made locally are costly for the Chinese populace to manage the cost of the imports turns out to be more (Klein and Shabbir, 99). The nation adds to expanded swelling by expending a greater number of imports than before in this way expanding need to utilize a greater amount of its outside trade holds. The Chinese development in populace has endured a great deal on account of the expansion in food costs on the planet showcase; the expansion has caused an expansion in food cost in China too, with the increment going similar to half. This implies the minimal ex penditure earned by the Chinese resident, a large portion of it is spent on food and different items and administrations whose costs has expanded, and therefore, the base wages have expanded. The expanded degree of spending on food and other costly items leave residents with any reserve to spare or contribute; likewise, they dread burning through all of what they have inspired by a paranoid fear of things to come. The worldwide market has likewise expanded costs for crude materials, which take the greatest segment of cost of creation; this has prompted the expansion of cost of completed items and thusly diminished the interest for Chinese items (Fewsmith 56). Another issue of Chinese expansion is that China sends out more than it imports; this makes current overflow. The administration is then is compelled to print cash available to be purchased with the goal that outsiders can have money to purchase their items, and when all these cash is provided in the Chinese economy, it expands the swelling further (Academy of Political Science (U.S.) 77). This pattern will proceed as long as China keeps on sending out to an ever increasing extent, except if arrangement is tried to assist China with dealing with its fares without printing cash. End The Chinese government is making a decent attempt to diminish the swelling and thinking about the causes. It is obvious that cash flow is the most serious issue and China being a nation that is so dynamic in business exercises, cash dissemination ought to be leveled out. To control the flow of cash, both nearby and remote money, the Chinese Central bank has expanded loaning rate to business banks; this will assist with fortifying the debilitating Chinese currency.Advertising We will compose a custom article test on The Cause of China’s Inflation explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Academy of Political Science (U.S.). China’s Developmental Experience. New York: Academy of Political Sc ience, 2009. Print. Fewsmith, Joseph. China Today, China Tomorrow: Domestic Politics, Economy, and Society. Lanham: Rowman Littlefield, 2010. Print. Klein, Robert Shabbir, Tayyeb. Ongoing Financial Crises: Analysis, Challenges and Implications. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2009. Print. This exposition on The Cause of China’s Inflation was composed and presented by client Vance S. to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; in any case, you should refer to it appropriately. You can give your paper here.

What Two Major Topics Does the Essay Discuss?

What Two Major Topics Does the Essay Discuss?If you are in need of writing an essay on the Scarlet Letter and the Poughkeepsie letter, you should focus on two major topics. You should write about each topic in the order listed above. Then you will have two very good topics to use throughout the essay.When writing an essay on the scarlet letter, your first topic should be about three major topics. These include the 'problem of political education in the British colonies,' 'the problem of 'sedition' in the colonies'the legal framework for religious establishments.' After you address these topics in your essay, your next topic should be the 'problem of religious liberty in the colonial period.' The last topic will be about the 'genesis of 'the spirit of independence.' 'In addition to focusing on three major topics, you should also begin with a single paragraph on each topic. This will help make it easier for you to remember and present the information you want to convey in each paragrap h. As you read through the paragraphs, you should be able to identify with and empathize with your subject.One of the reasons that you want to focus on the history of the Scarlet Letter is because of the impact that it had on the creation of the United States. The Puritans wrote the letter in 1641 and, as well as creating this document, they influenced the U.S. Constitution. Today, the United States also values religious liberty and our Declaration of Independence.The problem of 'sedition' was another problem that existed in the colonies. Often, there were small groups of people that supported the Crown over the colonists, and these groups often joined together to try to bring about an overthrow of the Crown. Another problem that existed was that the Puritans did not support the King because they believed that he was an 'elder.'The next topic to address is the legal framework for religious establishments. This is very similar to the founding fathers' argument for religious liberty i n the Declaration of Independence. It was considered that the establishment of religion and the imposition of religion on a population was wrong. The courts eventually ruled in favor of the king's contention that this practice violated the rights of the colonists.Finally, the last topic you should discuss is the 'genesis of 'the spirit of independence,' ' and how it was related to religious liberty. As mentioned before, the United States has a number of religious denominations and there are many who believe that there should be no law against people who consider themselves Christians but they do not adhere to the beliefs of others. This has led to an 'us vs. them' mentality, where people want to discriminate against others based on their beliefs.When you have finished writing, you should look for something in the writing that represents the thesis statement. Once you have accomplished this, then you can move onto the next topic.

How Reliable is the SAT

Wondering whether the SAT is reliable in predicting college preparedness or success is kind of like wondering about the meaning of life.  Its an important question, but theres no definitive answer. Still, its a question worth talking through and finding out where you stand on the issue. So, like the great philosophers in our time,  lets put our pondering caps on and try to tackle one of the biggest questions of our time: Truly, what is the meaning of life Things to know In  the last 10 years or so, the SAT really started to gather  controversy because of these very questions about its reliability. As Ive noted in this post about the pros and cons of SAT, theres a lot of research that shows the old SAT was not a reliable measure of college preparedness. Of course, there is also research that disagrees.  As a result, while a lot of schools still see  the value of the SAT as part of their admissions process, more and more schools are joining the test-optional movement. This means that students can opt out of sending in their SAT or ACT scores. Colleges  have made this move for a variety of reasons. One is that  they find that standardized tests dont test the skills they look for  their students. They may also want to give students the freedom of determining if their SAT score is a good indication of their academic performance. Finally, many schools see standardized tests as a barrier for students from underrepresented backgrounds, which is counter to their admissions goals. In fact, a lot of these schools saw increases in applications from such students when they went test-optional. Still, the jury is split about SAT reliability with valid arguments on both sides. SAT reliability for the new test According to the College Board, the SAT was revamped to better address these issues of college-relevant skills and student representation. They also claim that the new SAT is based on a lot of research about whats needed for academic success in college. They even claim that they already have evidence  that shows that the new SAT could predict success in college. While this all sounds promising, we should still be a little skeptical. Of course the  College Board is going to say that their product works! So, at the moment, the most honest answer someone can give you about SAT  reliability is, Were not so sure yet. In reality, it might take a few years of students trying out the SAT and researchers not associated with the  College Board to test  the relationship between the new SAT scores and how these students do in college. Only then we can we more confidently answer the question about SAT reliability for the new test. What this means for you If you read these arguments and find yourself morally against the SAT, thats totally fine because now, its a lot easier than ever to apply  to great schools that dont require the SAT. But if you find yourself believing in the SATs merits, thats totally fine, too. Heres the bottom line: While the SAT could be a valid measure for academic success—and a lot of schools continue to think so—it is still only  one  measurement out of many to determine college success. GPA and extracurricular activities are also really important pieces  of the college application process; students should not neglect developing these components in favor of stressing out about  the SAT. That would be a really bad idea. At the same time, doing well on the SAT can be the saving grace for students who might have had situations that kept  them from doing well on these other components. After all, the whole point of the SAT originally to was to  level the playing field for students who didnt come from privileged  backgrounds. I think we can all agree that the SAT is at its best when its used for that purpose.

Describing Stylistics as a Concept in English Studies Essay

Describing Stylistics as a Concept in English Studies Definition Stylistics applies linguistics to literature in the hope of arriving at analyses which are more broadly based, rigorous and objective. The pioneers were the Prague and Russian schools, but their approaches have been appropriated and extended by radical theory in recent years. Stylistics can be evaluative (i.e. judge the literary worth on stylistic criteria), but more commonly attempts to simply analyse and describe the workings of texts which have already been selected as noteworthy on other grounds. Stylistic analysis in linguistics refers to the identification of patterns of usage in speech and writing. Analyses can appear†¦show more content†¦USE IN ENGLISH STUDIES Why employ stylistics at all in the study of English? Because form is important in poetry and language, and stylistics has the largest armory of analytical weapons. At this point, the study of language moves into either stylistics or literary studies. †¢ Stylistic analysis is a normal part of literary studies. It is practised as a part of understanding the possible meanings in a text. †¢ It is also generally assumed that the process of analysis will reveal the good qualities of the writing. †¢ Take the opening lines of Shakespeares Richard III Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York; †¢ A stylistic analysis might reveal the following points:  · the play is written in poetic blank verse  · that is - unrhymed, iambic pentameters  · the stresses fall as follows  · Now is the winter of our discontent  · [notice that the stress falls on vowel sounds]  · the first line is built on a metaphor  · the condition of England is described in terms of the season winter  · the term our is a form of the royal we In a complete analysis, the significance ofShow MoreRelatedLesson Plan in English2923 Words   |  12 PagesA Lesson Plan in English I (First Year High School) Prepared by: Aileen Mae A. Alug I. 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The eighth chapter introducesRead MoreHeteroglossia - Langue and Linguistic Variation1871 Words   |  8 Pageslinguistic variation Bakhtin developed the notion in contrast with the structuralist account of language, which was centered in the notion of langue, that is, the systematic set of rules determining the well-formedness of an expression or utterance. This concept, introduced by Saussure, emphasised the notion that the code conformed by the linguistic norms must be common to all speakers for communication to be possible. This was seen as a dangerous simplification by Bakhtin, who asserted that languages are